History of the Coca Plant
  
  From the book: Cocaine the Legend by Jorge Hurtado)

Coca is a plant whose historic significance dates back tobefore the conquest of the Incas, in Andean prehistoric times:"... amidst small groups of nomad tribes which inhabitedthe Andes during the immediate post-glacial period".1the coca leaf was used (and still is) by the Incas, Quechuasand many other Andean cultures.
  
   The earliest coca leaves were discovered in the Huaca Prieta settlement c. 2500 - 1800 BC in the northern coast of Peru, positive proof that the natives of South America were using coca for a series of purposes for more than our thousand, five hundred years

   All pre-Columbian cultures in the Andes have left evidence of usage of these leaves.  Similarly, there is ample evidence that coca was one of the oldest domestic use plants in the New World. Its use extends over an area which includes Peru, Bolivia, Ecuador, Colombia, Chile, Argentina, Paraguay, and Brazil. The first mention found on the leaf, was one made by Father Tomas Ortiz, and later on many more chroniclers will mention the leaf starting with the cartographer and explorer Americo Vespucci.
  
   Cieza de Leon also devoted extensive paragraphs of his writingsto the Coca plant. In 1558, Acosta asserted in this respect: "To speak truthfully, I cannot be convinced that this is all afigment of the imagination.  I am rather inclined to believe that there is, in fact, another force and spirit in the natives because there are no effects that can be attributed to imagination, which is how, with the help of a handful of coca leaves, they can walk for days without food, at times other such things and other similar works."Further ahead in his work, the chronicler adds: "The Lords used coca as a royal object and a gift, and during their sacrifices, it was the one thing they most often offered, burning it in honor of their idols."  This same author notes that the leaf was used by the fortune teller (yatiri), by the magician (paco) and the native doctor (callawaya).
  
   The chroniclers also busied themselves in recording the powers and uses attributed to coca by the natives: to forecast coming events, to cure several ailments and its function as a mediator with the Andean Pantheon through offerings.  Such offerings were carried out during disasters, (drought, flooding, frost, and hail), or during the cycles of regular life, particularly related to MotherEarth (Pacha Mama), and fertility.  It is because of this that the coca was considered (and still is), a sacred plant endowed with magical powers, representing the intermediary to make contact with supernatural forces through especial rituals.

   The economic transformation generated during the Colonial period changed the value of coca leaves as a barter value.Many researchers indicate that at a given time during the Colony, the price of coca leaves was such that they were used instead of gold and silver.  Poma de Ayala maintains that the Spanish conquerors changed it into a form of payment. During this period, the usage of coca leaves by the natives is somewhat contradictory. 
  
   On the one hand, the Catholic Church perceives the use of coca as a major obstacle inpenetrating and capturing the indigenous soul and culture, to such an extent that the Church Council of 1569 decreed the eradication of coca plantings because they believed that the plant had satanic powers.  This marked the start of the Narco-Inquisition. In spite of this, the chronicles indicate that the coca crops increased considerably given the social importance the plant had, and still has, for the native population.It was used by the Spaniards for exploitation.  They are the ones who distributed the leaf, and in exchange the Indians had to serve, work more, etc., thereby increasing the economic importance of the plant, particularly in silver mining of Greater Potosi.  Subsequently, King Philip II of Spain declared coca a product for the welfare of theAndean natives.  The Church lifted its prohibition and established a ten per cent tax on coca. During the Colony, the importance and commerce of coca"...supplied a regional market, centered in Potosi, which ranged from Northern Peru, Bolivia, part of Chile, and the north of Argentina, a market which survived until the beginning of this century, due to coca..."

   It should benoted that Potosi, at the middle of the XVI century, had apopulation comparable to that of the large cities of Europe. 
  
   The value of coca leaves consumed annually in this city was equivalent to the price of 450 kilograms of gold, at the rate then in effect.

   During the Republican period, the coca plantings did not lose their importance.  Based on this crop, the powerful association of  land owners of Yungas was created, which starting in 1830, acquired a strong influence in national and departmental politics, their members becoming prominent individuals in the national elite.

Historians have emphasized the importance of coca for the mining industry, maintaining that the natives refused to work in the mines without their coca ration.  The relation of mining to coca was so close that even the prices of the former depended on the prices of ores. 

Nicanor Fernandez stated at the beginning of the century with respect to the coca / mining relation:

"The unanimous acceptance of the working population ofthe mines, whose work has stopped recently due to theconsiderable reduction of the tin prices, has also depressed the prices of coca, causing a veritable crisis inproduction centers."

. Through the Decree of August 4, 1940, coca was declared a basic article, and its sale was mandatory in mining and railroad companies. The trajectory of coca is an example of historical tenacity.  We are certainly not dealing with a mere weed. Looking at it from any perspective, coca appears as apowerful articulator of social, political, cultural and economic realities of this nation.  "While coca was primarily consumed by the indigenous population, it is linked through the various commercial levels all social strata, ruling classes, half breeds, merchants, lower class laborers, indians."

It is like Matienzo said in his time: "To do away with coca is like denying the existence of Peru." 
  
   Apparently coca had not lost the significance it had at the time of the Conquest.Currently, the traditional use of coca is quite extensive in Bolivia, Peru and Northern Argentina and part of Colombia, particularly among the Aymara and Quechua natives who work in farming, mining, or live in the cities. 
There search conducted by Carter and Mamani in the rural high plateau regions of Bolivia, shows that 92% of the male population and 89% of the female population were coca users, and that 82% and 68% respectively are habitual chewers.
Faced with these figures, by no means negligible, it is important to take into account that the use of coca is in open defiance to an outside world who discriminates against the coca chewer because for a long time, coca has been synonymous with native. 

Its use is a powerful symbol of group identity and solidarity which clearly separates thosewho are with the native and those who oppose them.  One could say that the coca leaf is the backbone of the cultural structure of the Andean region. 
To achieve abetter understanding of the latter, we will distinguish three relationships of the Andean inhabitant with coca:

  Economic.- The coca leaf operates in farming communities almost as  currency for the exchange of products (barter system).  It is marketed to obtain currency and be able to respond to new urban consumer demands.

Social.- Coca plays a key role in reciprocating manners.  In the Andean culture all social interaction is conceived in terms of reciprocation or interchange.  There is no reciprocal interchange in which coca is not offered, for instance: If a man or woman asks for ayni (an Aymaracustom of reciprocal help), he/she will offer a handful of coca.  A man would show his acceptance of the charge receiving the coca from the offeror.  Petitions submitted to community leaders may be accompanied with coca and alcohol.  Similarly, the coca it is very important when a leader assumes a community position, or when those who lead a group of native dancers are named.  The petition of a woman in marriage is led by the relatives of the groom by offering a handful of coca.  The success of the petition would be indicated by the acceptance or rejection of the gift.
To organize more complex tasks, such as feasts, construction or even battle against the enemy, groups orthe entire community will gather the whole night .  There, coca is distributed and is chewed during the meeting.  Its use is extended in special occasions such as festivities both in the country and the suburban areas. In the Bolivian Yungas, an area which produced coca since the Incas, the coca field accompanies the vital cycle of the family. 

   When a couple is joined in matrimony they have to build a house and plant a coca field.  The planting is born with the family, grows and thrives with it.  When their children grow and bring a wife to help with the chores, the coca field and the home will have reached the pinnacle of production and their modest wealth. In time, their offspring will leave home, their parents will grow old alone, like their coca field which yields little, but enough for the reduced family.

Thus coca is key to enter into social relationships in Andean cultures, it promotes trust and is like a visiting card. 
Sergio Quijada explains this very aptly when he asserts " Coca, when chewed in small quantities (chakchar oracullico), is an efficient bond and link to knit the fabric of fraternization and amiability among fellow countrymen."

Socially, coca is offered and handed out to extend and strengthen the kinship and reciprocation relationship, so dearly needed in the Andean world to achieve labor, prestige, power and social integration.

   At work.-  Before starting work on the farm, together withtheir relatives, friends and community members who willwork with the owner (who will reciprocate their cooperationin the future), coca, drinks and cigarettes will be passed around.  They all give thanks for the gift, choose three leaves blowing into the direction of a mountain which will protect them and the community, and pray to the spirits. Then, slowly, they begin to chew the leaves. 
  
   The owner will pay homage to the ancestors and to Mother Earth, burying some coca, cigarettes and candy in the ground, invoking their ancestors (Peru).In the Andes, the work day is divided in three or four shifts, with a break between shifts when coca is chewed after their meals.  The same is done when performing community work, where their authorities will hand out thecoca leaves. 

In the Bolivian Yungas, thanks to the leaf, the ayni or reciprocation institution has been extended considerably because coca is a permanent crop which requires good care for the future.  Under the ayni, the work performed for others is done with the same care as fortheir own property.  The harvest under the reciprocation system is done by the women and this is the social eventper excellence, they don their best clothing, blue skirtsin contrast with the green coca fields and reddish brownearth.  The young men of the community look for a suitable partner, the women flirt about, there is laughter, tales, and gossip.
 
   The harvest is the major workshop for social control by the community. In farming communities, the practice of reciprocation for work shows that labor is a community resource, shared byall members as if they all belonged to a single domestic unit, and it is work which will establish the rank of thecommunity member.

   Magical Practices.-

In the Andean area, all ritual andreligious ceremonies subsist and are quite common, with slight variations.The purpose of the use of coca, in a magical sense, is toprotect the individual against witchcraft, curses, change bad luck and predict the future.Without coca, it would be impossible for the fortune teller to forecast the future, or to indicate what is the ailment of his patients and how to cure it.  He would be able to understand the punishment inflicted by Mother Earth, the guardian spirits and other god protectors.  Without coca they cannot protect the future and avert curses, for this practice coca is chewed and then burned.  It is given to their animals when celebrating fertility rites.  It is very important for there to be an abundance of coca, alcohol and food in these occasions because these are symbols ofabundance in the future of the believers.  Otherwise, theceremony is useless.

   In a religious sense, coca is used humbly to give thanks for blessings or to make offerings to the gods.  All traditional Andean rituals are celebrated around the coca leaves.  All present must chew the leaves under the direction of the fortune teller (yatiri).  Likewise, cocais indispensable in preparing the offerings, services forthe ancestors, to Mother Earth (Pacha Mama) as an act of thanks giving for good harvests, health or thriving oftheir livestock

."The gods, the Incas, and the ancestors in ancient and sacred times, dictated the rules for social and individualuse of coca.  The use of this plant as dictated by custom, in agricultural feasts, at work or during the ceremonies of their vital cycle, is to enter and experience the mythical and primeval space-time continuum of the gods, cultural heroes and their ancestors."

   Coca will always be present in all important moments oftheir life because it is not only a product, but heritage as well.  It is not only their most important element of their survival, but it also represents what is sacred to them, their culture, traditions and their endurance against abuse and exploitation. "Like people, it must never be killed, uprooted, norshould the leaves be cast away... I interpret your sickness and all other ill fortune as a punishment from Pacha Mama for having eradicated the coca -it is sacred- is it not true?"

* Chapter extracted from the thesis of Sdenka Silva.Universidad Mayor de San Andres. Sociology.